India has made significant strides in literacy rates since independence. The country’s literacy rate rose from 18.32% in 1951 to 74.04% in 2011. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), the overall literacy rate for the population aged 7 years and above stood at 81.1%. Literacy is no longer viewed merely as the ability to read and write; it is also linked to social participation, employment, economic opportunities, digital understanding, and lifelong learning.
Literacy: The Foundation of National Development
Literacy empowers individuals to access new opportunities, participate in the economy, and engage meaningfully with society. UNESCO regards it as a fundamental human right and a crucial tool for achieving equality, justice, inclusion, and respect for the rule of law. Several initiatives, including the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, have been implemented in India to strengthen the education system and enhance literacy.
Broad Definition of Literacy
The Department of School Education and Literacy under the Ministry of Education defines literacy as the ability to read, write, and perform basic arithmetic, alongside the capacity to identify, understand, interpret, and create. It also encompasses vital life skills such as digital literacy and financial literacy. A literacy rate of 95% in a state or union territory is considered equivalent to ‘total literacy’.
Steady Improvement in Literacy Since 1951
India’s literacy rate increased from 18.32% in 1951 to 74.04% in 2011. During this period, the male literacy rate rose from 27.15% to 82.14%, and the female literacy rate increased from 8.86% to 65.46%. In urban areas, the literacy rate climbed from 34.59% in 1951 to 84.1% in 2011, while in rural areas, it rose from 12.10% to 67.8%. Between 2001 and 2011, rural female literacy saw a 26% increase, whereas rural male literacy recorded a 10% rise.
81.1% Literacy in PLFS 2025
According to PLFS 2025, the literacy rate for the population aged 7 years and above in urban areas stood at 89%. Within this age group, the literacy rate was 93.1% for urban males and 84.8% for urban females. In rural areas, the literacy rate for the population aged 7 years and above was 77.4%; the rate was recorded at 84.8% for rural males and 70.3% for rural females. For the population aged 5 years and above, the urban literacy rate was 88%, and the rural literacy rate was 76.4%.
School Enrollment and Retention
Alongside improvements in literacy, the government has also emphasized strengthening the processes of school enrollment, retention, and progression from one level of education to the next. According to UDISE+ 2025-26, over 24.72 crore students were enrolled in schools across the country. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) stood at 42.8% at the Foundational Stage, 91.7% at the Preparatory Stage, 89.6% at the Middle Stage, and 71.7% at the Secondary Stage. Dropout rates were 1.8% at the Preparatory Stage, 3.6% at the Middle Stage, and 7.0% at the Secondary Stage.
Increased Transition Between Levels of Education
Retention rates were 98.5% at the Foundational Stage, 91.1% at the Preparatory Stage, 83.7% at the Middle Stage, and 51.9% at the Secondary Stage. Meanwhile, 99.2% of students progressed from the Foundational Stage to the Preparatory Stage, 93.8% from the Preparatory to the Middle Stage, and 88.3% from the Middle to the Secondary Stage. The transition rate refers to the percentage of students who successfully move from one level of education to the next.
Increased Participation in Higher Education
Between 2014-15 and 2023-24, student enrolment in higher education rose from 3.42 crore to 4.50 crore. During the same period, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for higher education increased from 23.7% to 30%. The number of students graduating from higher education also rose from 88.28 lakh in 2014-15 to over 1.09 crore in 2023-24. Improved participation among women, as well as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes, reflects the expanded access to higher education. NEP 2020 sets a target of achieving a 50% GER in higher education by 2035. Promoting Adult Literacy through ULLAS
The government has launched ULLAS (Nav Bharat Saksharta Karyakram) to impart literacy to individuals aged 15 and above who missed out on formal schooling. Aligned with NEP 2020, the program focuses on providing functional literacy, numeracy, life skills, and lifelong learning opportunities. The vision of ULLAS is ‘Jan-Jan Saksharta’ (Literacy for All). The program emphasizes making adults literate through volunteerism and community participation. Volunteers—including school teachers, civil society activists, ASHA workers, and Anganwadi workers—can contribute to this initiative.
Facilitating Digital Learning
ULLAS operates on a hybrid learning model. The ULLAS app is available on both iOS and Android platforms and offers teaching-learning material in 27 languages. Learners are connected with volunteer teachers who assist them with app registration and their studies. Training sessions and workshops are conducted through both online and in-person modes. After acquiring basic literacy and numeracy skills, learners appear for the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT).
Millions of Learners under ULLAS
ULLAS aims to enroll 5 crore learners during the 2022-27 period with a budget of ₹1,037.90 crore. Currently, approximately 4.03 crore learners are registered under the program, and over 52.20 lakh volunteers are involved. So far, more than 3.3 crore learners have participated in FLNAT. Between 2024 and 2026, 10 states and Union Territories have declared themselves fully literate. These include Ladakh, Mizoram, Goa, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, and Jammu & Kashmir.
Emphasis on Foundational Education through NIPUN Bharat
Launched in July 2021 under Samagra Shiksha, the NIPUN Bharat initiative aims to achieve foundational literacy and numeracy proficiency for all children by 2026-27. It focuses on the foundational stage for children aged 3 to 8 years and aims to ensure that children acquire basic skills by the time they reach Grade 2.
Equal Opportunities through Samagra Shiksha
The objective of Samagra Shiksha is to provide equal opportunities in school education, enhance school effectiveness, and improve learning outcomes. This scheme was launched by merging earlier schemes such as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, and Teacher Education. It emphasizes equitable, inclusive, and quality education alongside foundational learning, teacher development, and vocational education.
Boosting Model Schools through PM SHRI
The Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India (PM SHRI) scheme aims to develop over 14,500 model schools across the country. These schools emphasize creating an equitable, inclusive, and joyful learning environment for the holistic development of students.
Digital Education through PM e-VIDYA
PM e-VIDYA is an initiative that integrates various efforts related to digital, online, and on-air education. Its objective is to provide diverse learning mediums for students. This initiative is expected to benefit approximately 25 crore school children across the country.
School Participation through PM POSHAN
Under the PM POSHAN scheme, hot cooked meals are provided on school days to 11.20 crore students—enrolled in Bal Vatika (preschool) and classes 1 through 8—across 10.36 lakh government and government-aided schools. The scheme aims to enhance school participation while providing nutritional support to students.
The Importance of Literacy for a Developed India
Literacy and education lie at the heart of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG-4), which seeks to ensure inclusive, equitable, and quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all. Literacy is linked to economic growth, employment, productivity, innovation, and economic participation. Education and skills can also prepare individuals for eco-friendly employment—or ‘green jobs’—promote a circular economy, and contribute to environmental sustainability.
Participation of Women and Marginalized Sections is Crucial
Literacy extends beyond mere education; it is also linked to women’s empowerment, equality, social inclusion, and the realization of human rights. Bridging the gaps between rural and urban areas, as well as among diverse social groups, is a vital step toward achieving universal literacy.
Lifelong Learning: The Path to the Future
India’s literacy journey reflects the transformation in nation-building and human development since independence. Today, literacy signifies more than just the ability to read and write; it encompasses the capacity for learning, earning a livelihood, participating in the digital world, and contributing meaningfully to society. Initiatives such as NEP 2020, ULLAS, and NIPUN Bharat are integrating foundational education with adult education, lifelong learning, and future-ready skills. Sustained focus on addressing regional and gender disparities can help extend the benefits of literacy to every segment of society. A literate, skilled, and empowered population can lay a crucial foundation for a developed India.
